As an educator and pastoral leader, I’ve always been fascinated by the inner workings of the mind—how students learn, process emotions, and navigate challenges. It’s no surpise that the human brain is considered the most complex known structure in the universe, with many billions of neurons forming trillions of dynamic connections, which orchestrates every thought, movement, and emotion.

On this course, Intro to Neuroscience, Dr. Baland Jalal, a leading neuroscientist, takes us on a journey through the intricacies of the brain, blending scientific discovery with personal experiences. His own encounter with sleep paralysis (a phenomenon I have personally experienced) as a teenager ignited a lifelong passion for understanding the mind.

In these notes, I have selected and summarised the key insights from his lectures, focusing on the most practical takeaways for self-development and purposeful living.

The Brain

The neural networks enable everything from problem-solving to emotional intelligence. A single genetic difference distinguishes us from our closest relatives, chimpanzees, affecting how long our brain cells continue dividing. This seemingly minor variation results in significant cognitive and behavioral differences between humans and other primates. Dr. Jalal refers to this as the “police officer gene,” which governs brain growth and complexity.

How Neurons Communicate: The Basis of Thought

Neurons communicate through electrical impulses and chemical messengers known as neurotransmitters. This process follows these key steps:

1. Action Potential – An electrical impulse travels down the neuron’s axon.
2. Synapse – The impulse reaches the synapse (gap between neurons), triggering the release of neurotransmitters.
3. Neurotransmitter Release – Chemicals such as dopamine and serotonin cross the synaptic gap.

Reception – The receiving neuron’s dendrites pick up the signal, allowing communication to continue.

The efficiency of this process affects everything from learning and memory to mood and motivation. For example, dopamine plays a role in pleasure and reward, while serotonin is linked to well-being and emotional stability.

Key Takeaway:

Our intelligence and adaptability stem from a delicate balance of genetic factors and neural connectivity. Understanding this can help us appreciate the brain’s potential for lifelong learning and development.

The Brain’s Modular Structure: Specialization in Action

While the brain operates as an interconnected system, different regions specialize in specific functions:

• Frontal Lobe – Decision-making, problem-solving, and voluntary movement.
• Parietal Lobe – Spatial awareness and bodily sensations.
• Occipital Lobe – Vision processing.
• Temporal Lobe – Hearing, language comprehension, and facial recognition.

When these areas are damaged, their functions become evident. For example, a stroke in Broca’s area (frontal lobe) impairs speech production, while damage to Wernicke’s area (temporal lobe) affects language comprehension.

Neuroplasticity: How the Brain Adapts 

One of the most groundbreaking discoveries in neuroscience is neuroplasticity—the brain’s ability to rewire itself. This ability allows us to learn new skills, recover from injuries, and reshape our thinking patterns. The nucleus basalis plays a critical role in neuroplasticity by releasing acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that enhances focus and learning.

How to Harness Neuroplasticity:

1. Engage in Deep Learning – Paying full attention while learning something new increases acetylcholine release, solidifying new neural connections.
2. Challenge Your Brain – Engaging in new experiences, such as learning a language or playing an instrument, strengthens neural pathways.

Practice Repetition – Repeating a skill or thought pattern reinforces it, making it easier to recall and apply.

The Power of Perception: The Rubber Hand Illusion

Dr. Jalal shares an experiment called the Rubber Hand Illusion, which demonstrates how easily the brain can be tricked into altering body perception. By synchronising touch on a hidden real hand and a visible rubber hand, participants begin to feel sensations in the rubber hand. This illusion reveals how our sense of self is constructed by the brain and can be manipulated.

Reflection: If your brain can be tricked into adopting a false hand, how much of your everyday experience is shaped by perception rather than reality?

How the Brain Regulates Emotion and Behaviour

The limbic system, deep within the brain, governs emotions and motivation:

• Amygdala – Processes fear and emotional reactions.
• Hypothalamus – Controls hunger, sleep, and sexual behaviour.
• Septum – Influences pleasure and bonding.

Interestingly, aggression and sexual behaviour are controlled by closely related brain regions, which may explain their frequent overlap in human behaviour.

Key Takeaway:

Your brain is constantly adapting. By deliberately engaging in learning and challenging tasks, you can reshape your brain and enhance cognitive function.

Practical Applications: Understanding the Brain in Daily Life

1. Optimising Learning – To master a skill, focus intensely on it. The release of acetylcholine enhances brain plasticity.
2. Improving Mental Health – Dopamine and serotonin balance affects mood; activities like exercise and meditation can boost these neurotransmitters.
3. Managing Pain – Endorphins act as natural painkillers. The brain can even suppress pain perception, as seen in acupuncture studies.
4. Overcoming Phobias – The same principles behind the Rubber Hand Illusion can be used in therapy. Exposure therapy, for example, gradually reduces fear responses by rewiring neural pathways.

 

Brain & Self

Neuroscience tells us that this strong sense of self is a creation of the brain—a delicate, ever-changing construct built through neural activity. A striking example is the Rubber Hand Illusion, where synchronizing touch on a hidden real hand and a visible rubber hand tricks the brain into perceiving the rubber hand as its own. This demonstrates how easily our sense of self and body ownership can be altered.

The Self-Other Boundary: How We Distinguish ‘Me’ from ‘You’

A crucial brain region involved in maintaining the boundary between self and others is the temporal-parietal junction (TPJ). It integrates multiple sensory inputs—vision, touch, balance—to ensure we feel located in our own bodies rather than merging with those around us. However, when this region is impaired, people may experience out-of-body experiences, feeling as if they are floating outside their physical form.

Interestingly, during REM sleep, the TPJ becomes less active, which may explain why dreams sometimes involve occupying another person’s body or viewing oneself from an external perspective. The brain’s usual boundaries between self and other become temporarily blurred, illustrating how malleable our sense of identity can be.

Mirror Neurons and the Power of Empathy

The insula, another key region of the brain, helps us process emotions like disgust and pain—not just in ourselves but also in others. This becomes particularly evident in individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Studies have shown that when OCD patients watch someone touch a ‘contaminated’ object, they may feel the urge to wash their own hands. Their brains are overactive in processing vicarious sensations, making them hypersensitive to external triggers.

This points to the astonishing interconnectedness of human experience: Our brains are wired to feel what others feel, sometimes blurring the line between self and other in surprising ways.

The Neuroscience of Vision: Seeing is (Not Always) Believing

The process of vision is another example of the brain’s active construction of reality. The visual cortex in the occipital lobe interprets sensory input, but multiple brain regions collaborate to refine our perception. For instance, the fusiform gyrus is essential for recognising faces, while the amygdala helps assign emotional significance to what we see.

In individuals with Charles Bonnet syndrome, where visual input is impaired (often due to blindness or degeneration), the brain compensates by ‘filling in the gaps’ with hallucinations. Patients may report seeing people or animals that aren’t there, underscoring how our perception is as much about the brain’s expectations as it is about reality itself.

Practical Application:

• Mindfulness and Cognitive Reframing – Since perception shapes reality, changing how you interpret events can alter your experience of them.
• Visualization Techniques – Athletes and performers use mental imagery to enhance performance by reinforcing neural connections before executing physical actions.

Key Takeaway:

Your reality is shaped by perception, which means that shifting your mindset can transform your experiences and emotions.

 

Principles of Neuroplasticity

Whether it’s learning a new skill, forming habits, or overcoming challenges, your brain is constantly reshaping itself. This ability of the brain to reorganise itself new neura ccoonnections, known as neuroplasticity, is at the heart of how we grow and evolve throughout life.

Below are key principles that drive neuroplasticity:

1. Use It or Lose It

Your brain strengthens the connections you use frequently and prunes away those you don’t. This principle explains why practice makes perfect—and why skills you neglect tend to fade over time.

Takeaway: If you want to maintain or improve a skill, consistent practice is essential.

2. Neurons That Fire Together, Wire Together

When two neurons activate at the same time, their connection becomes stronger. This principle, known as Hebb’s Law, is the foundation of learning and habit formation.

Takeaway: Repeating a behavior or thought pattern reinforces it in your brain. Choose your habits wisely!

3. Critical Periods: The Windows of Learning

There are specific windows in life when the brain is more plastic, such as early childhood for language acquisition. However, while neuroplasticity declines with age, it never disappears completely.

Takeaway: While it’s easier to learn certain skills at a young age, adults can still reshape their brains through focused effort and practice.

4. The Role of Attention and Focus

The brain’s ability to rewire itself depends on focused attention. The neurotransmitter acetylcholine plays a key role in directing our brain’s plasticity by enhancing attention and learning.

Takeaway: If you want to learn something new, remove distractions and give it your full attention.

5. Novelty and Dopamine: The Brain’s Reward System

New experiences trigger the release of dopamine, which enhances learning and motivation. This is why travel, new hobbies, and stepping outside your comfort zone can be so beneficial for brain growth.

Takeaway: If you want to accelerate learning, expose yourself to new and challenging experiences.

6. Repetition and Growth Factors

When you engage in repeated practice, your brain releases brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a protein that strengthens neural connections and encourages plasticity. This is why repetition is crucial for mastering any skill.

Takeaway: Engage in consistent, structured practice to reinforce learning.

 

Neuroplasticity & Therapy

Now that we understand how neuroplasticity works, let’s explore how you can use this knowledge to your advantage.

1. Learn a New Skill

Whether it’s a new language, an instrument, or a sport, challenging your brain with new experiences helps maintain cognitive function and adaptability.

2. Break Bad Habits and Build Good Ones

Because neurons that fire together wire together, repeatedly engaging in positive habits strengthens those neural pathways. On the flip side, replacing bad habits with positive ones weakens negative pathways over time.

3. Use Mindfulness and Meditation

Studies show that mindfulness and meditation enhance neuroplasticity by strengthening attention networks and reducing stress, which can otherwise impair learning and memory.

4. Engage in Physical Exercise

Exercise increases dopamine and BDNF, making it a powerful tool for enhancing brain function and mental health.

5. Get Enough Sleep

Sleep consolidates learning and memory. During deep sleep, the brain strengthens neural connections and clears out waste products that build up during the day.

Memory consolidation occurs in different sleep stages:

• Deep Sleep (Slow-Wave Sleep) – Strengthens procedural and motor memory.
• REM Sleep – Essential for emotional processing and creativity.

How to Optimise Learning and Memory:

1. Prioritize Sleep – A well-rested brain retains information more effectively.
2. Use Spaced Repetition – Revisiting information at intervals reinforces memory.
3. Engage in Active Recall – Instead of passive review, test yourself on what you’ve learned.

Key Takeaway:

Learning is a dynamic process. Sleep, repetition, and active engagement enhance knowledge retention and cognitive performance.

6. Embrace Change and Challenge Yourself

Stepping outside your comfort zone and continuously seeking out new experiences keeps your brain engaged and adaptable.

 

Brain, Body, and Belief

Our brains are wired for survival, but sometimes these ancient mechanisms work against us in modern life. Why do we freeze in fear instead of running? Can simply imagining an action improve performance? How do our beliefs shape health and well-being?

Neuroscience reveals fascinating insights into these questions. The brain’s instinctive freeze response evolved to protect us, but in trauma, it can lead to detachment and anxiety. Surprisingly, studies show that mental practice—visualizing an action—can strengthen neural pathways as effectively as real training. Meanwhile, positive thinking has measurable health benefits, and the placebo effect proves that belief alone can heal—or harm.

From meditation’s power to rewire the brain for happiness to rare disorders that trick us into seeing loved ones as imposters, understanding these neural processes helps us take charge of our thoughts, emotions, and personal growth.

The Science of Freezing: Why We Sometimes Can’t Act

In moments of extreme stress or fear, some people instinctively freeze instead of fighting or fleeing. While this might seem irrational, it has evolutionary roots.

In the wild, an animal that stops moving might avoid detection from predators. Movement attracts attention, and playing dead can sometimes be a survival strategy. This response is triggered by the amygdala (the brain’s emotional centre), which sends a signal to the hypothalamus to shut down physical movement.

But what happens when this ancient mechanism is activated in modern life? Victims of trauma, such as assault, often describe feeling detached from their bodies or seeing themselves from the outside— a phenomenon known as depersonalisation. This is the brain’s way of protecting itself, reducing emotional pain by separating the self from the experience.

Key Takeaway: Our reactions to fear are deeply ingrained in the brain. Understanding this can help us develop strategies for managing anxiety, PTSD, and trauma-related responses.

The Brain’s Incredible Ability to Learn Through Imagination

Can simply imagining an action make you better at it? According to neuroscience, yes!

One study split participants into two groups:

• One group practised playing the piano for two hours a day.
• The other group just imagined playing the piano—hearing the notes in their heads and moving their fingers mentally.

After five days, both groups showed nearly identical improvements in their skills. The brain activity in the motor cortex (which controls movement) was nearly the same in both groups.

Even more impressively, a similar study showed that people who mentally trained their muscles (without physically moving) increased their strength by 22%—just by thinking about exercise!

Key Takeaway: The mind and body are deeply connected. Visualisation techniques can enhance learning, improve performance, and even build strength. Whether it’s sports, music, or any other skill, mental practice matters.

Happiness, Stress, and the Power of Positive Thinking

Did you know that happier people live longer and have stronger immune systems?

A study tracking people aged 65 to 90 found that the happiest individuals lived twice as long as the least happy ones. Another experiment exposed people to a cold virus and found that those with a more positive mindset were three times less likely to get sick.

Why? It all comes down to cortisol, the stress hormone. Unhappiness and chronic stress lead to 50% more cortisol in circulation, weakening the immune system and making people more susceptible to illness.

One fascinating study even analysed letters written by nuns decades ago. Those who used more positive words in their writing ended up living longer—showing that our thoughts and emotions can shape our longevity.

Key Takeaway: A positive mindset isn’t just about feeling good—it has real, measurable effects on health and lifespan. Simple practices like gratitude and mindfulness can have long-term benefits.

The Placebo and Nocebo Effect: How Belief Can Heal or Harm

We’ve all heard of the placebo effect—where a sugar pill can improve health simply because the person believes it will work. But have you heard of the nocebo effect?

The nocebo effect is the opposite of the placebo effect—where negative beliefs can make us physically unwell.

🔹 Example 1: Sleep Paralysis Across Cultures

• In Denmark, sleep paralysis is seen as a harmless brain glitch, and people describe it as a brief and forgettable experience.
• In Egypt and Italy, people believe it is caused by supernatural creatures like genies or witches. The experience is more terrifying, lasts longer, and can even cause PTSD.

🔹 Example 2: Curses and Death

• Some people have reportedly died after being cursed by a witch doctor.
• Extreme stress and fear may have caused a physiological shutdown, leading to death.

Beliefs shape reality. If someone truly believes they are in danger, their brain and body will respond as if the threat is real.

Key Takeaway: Our minds are powerful enough to influence physical health. Changing beliefs can change outcomes—whether in healing, stress management, or even overcoming fears.

How Meditation Can Rewire the Brain

Neuroscience has shown that meditation can physically change the brain.

Studies show that after just eight weeks of meditation, people can shift brain activity from the right prefrontal cortex (linked to anxiety and fear) to the left prefrontal cortex (linked to happiness and optimism).

One specific type of meditation—compassion meditation—has been shown to reduce activity in the amygdala (the brain’s fear centre) and increase feelings of happiness and empathy.

Key Takeaway: Meditation isn’t just about relaxation—it actively rewires the brain for happiness and resilience.

The Capgras Delusion: When the Brain Plays Tricks on Us

Imagine looking at your mother and believing she is an imposter.

This is what happens in Capgras Syndrome, a rare brain disorder.

• People with Capgras recognise faces but don’t feel any emotional connection.
• Because the amygdala (emotion centre) is disconnected from the visual system, the brain invents a delusion to explain the lack of feeling: “This person must be an imposter.”
• Interestingly, the same person sounds normal over the phone because the auditory and emotional circuits remain connected.

This condition shows how emotion plays a crucial role in recognising loved ones.

Key Takeaway: Our emotions shape our perceptions. The brain fills in the blanks when something doesn’t make sense—even if the result is an absurd delusion.

Dreams and Beyond

Why Do Dreams Feel So Real?

Dreams are created during REM sleep, a stage of sleep that occurs multiple times during the night. During this phase, the brain’s dorsolateral prefrontal cortex—the area responsible for logic and structured thinking—essentially shuts down. This explains why dreams can be completely illogical, yet feel entirely real while we are in them.

In REM sleep, our brain becomes a theatre of the absurd. One moment, you’re having tea with a historical figure, and the next, you’re flying over the ocean. But despite this randomness, the brain processes these experiences as if they are actually happening.

The Role of Neurotransmitters

A mix of chemicals determines the nature of our dreams:

• Dopamine makes dreams emotional and intense.
• Acetylcholine enhances vividness and detail.
• Serotonin, usually responsible for keeping our thoughts structured, is largely absent, which explains the chaotic nature of dreams.

Dreams as a Training Ground for Reality

Dreams are not just random events; they serve a deeper purpose. They help us:

• Process emotions.
• Strengthen memory and problem-solving skills.
• Simulate potential dangers, preparing us for real-life threats.

This means that if you dream about running from a predator or facing a conflict, your brain is rehearsing responses to future challenges.

Takeaway:

Instead of dismissing dreams as meaningless, consider them as a mental training ground for life. What recent dream have you had that might reveal something about your emotions or thoughts?

Sleep Paralysis: The Intersection of Dreams and Wakefulness

Sleep paralysis occurs when REM sleep intrudes into wakefulness, leaving the body temporarily immobile. The amygdala, responsible for processing fear, remains active, often resulting in terrifying hallucinations.

How to Prevent Sleep Paralysis:

• Maintain a Regular Sleep Schedule – Irregular sleep increases the likelihood of sleep paralysis.
• Reduce Stress and Anxiety – High stress levels can trigger episodes.
• Avoid Sleeping on Your Back – This position is commonly associated with sleep paralysis.

Key Takeaway:

Understanding sleep paralysis demystifies the experience, making it less frightening and more manageable.

Lucid Dreaming: Taking Control of Your Dreams

Lucid dreaming occurs when the brain’s prefrontal cortex becomes partially active during REM sleep, allowing dreamers to become aware they are dreaming and even control their dream environments.

How to Enhance Lucid Dreaming:

1. Keep a Dream Journal – Writing down dreams improves dream recall.
2. Perform Reality Checks – Asking, “Am I dreaming?” throughout the day can carry over into dreams.
3. Use the Wake-Back-to-Bed Method – Waking up briefly and returning to sleep with intention increases the chances of lucid dreaming.

Key Takeaway:

Lucid dreaming is a tool for creativity, self-exploration, and problem-solving. Practicing awareness in waking life increases control over dreams.

Sleep and Memory: The Science Behind ‘Sleeping on It’

Have you ever struggled to learn something, only to find that after a night of sleep, it suddenly makes more sense? That’s because sleep plays a crucial role in memory consolidation.

• Deep sleep (early in the night) strengthens procedural and motor memory.
• REM sleep (later in the night) is essential for emotional processing and creativity.

Studies have shown that learning before sleep can improve performance by 20% the next day. Even Thomas Edison used naps strategically to enhance his creative thinking.

How to Maximise Learning While You Sleep:

• Review information before bed.
• Prioritise getting 7–9 hours of sleep.
• Take short naps if needed—they can boost memory retention.

Takeaway:

If you have an exam, a big project, or a creative block, don’t pull an all-nighter. Sleep is your brain’s secret weapon for learning.

Conclusion: Why Understanding the Brain Matters

The brain is the foundation of our identity, intelligence, and emotional well-being. From the surreal landscapes of dreams to the eerie grip of sleep paralysis, the brain is constantly constructing reality—both awake and asleep. Dr. Jalal’s journey into neuroscience teaches us that questioning the mysteries of the mind can lead to incredible discoveries.

By understanding the principles of neuroplasticity, perception, and sleep, we can take charge of our thoughts, behaviors, and overall mental health. If there’s one key lesson to take from all of this, it’s that learning changes the brain. New experiences, deep questions, and even unexpected fears can push us towards growth. Whether it’s training your mind through lucid dreaming, harnessing the power of sleep for memory, or simply appreciating the fragile miracle of existence, the way we interact with our own consciousness shapes our reality.